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614-893-0910 or BTCarroll1@cs.com - 614-937-9427
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This article is an excerpt from Sternbach H.
Serotonin syndrome: How to avoid, identify, & treat dangerous drug interactions. Current Psychiatry Vol. 2, No. 5 / May 2003
As the list of serotonergic agents grows, recognizing hyperthermic states and potentially dangerous drug combinations is critical to our patients’ safety.
Harvey Sternbach, MD
Clinical professor of psychiatry
UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute
Los Angeles, CA
Promptly identifying serotonin syndrome and acting decisively can keep side effects at the mild end of the spectrum. Symptoms of this potentially dangerous syndrome range from minimal in patients starting selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) to fatal in those combining monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) with serotonergic agents.
This article presents the latest evidence on how to:
reduce the risk of serotonin syndrome
recognize its symptoms
and treat patients with mild to life-threatening symptoms.
What is serotonin syndrome?
Serotonin syndrome is characterized by changes in autonomic, neuromotor, and cognitive-behavioral function (Table 1) triggered by increased serotonergic stimulation. It typically results from pharmacodynamic and/or pharmacokinetic interactions between drugs that increase serotonin activity.1,2
The syndrome was first identified in animal studies, followed by case reports in humans. The first review—with suggested diagnostic criteria—was published in 1991.1
Since then, case reports have described serotonin syndrome with many drug combinations, including nonpsychotropics and illicit drugs. Using an irreversible MAOI with a serotonergic agent is the most toxic reported combination, but any drug or combination that increases serotonin can, in theory, cause serotonin syndrome (Table 2). A clinical scale3 is being developed to define and identify this potentially dangerous state, but no consensus has emerged on diagnostic criteria.
Pathophysiology. Serotonin syndrome’s symptoms and signs appear to result from stimulation of specific central and peripheral serotonin receptors, especially 5HT1a and 5HT2. Others—such as 5HT3 and 5HT4—may also be involved in causing GI symptoms and may affect dopaminergic transmission.
Damaged vascular or pulmonary endothelium, atherosclerosis, hypertension, or hypercholesterolemia may increase the risk for serotonin syndrome. In patients with these common medical conditions, reduced endothelial MAO-A activity or reduced ability to secrete endothelium-derived nitric oxide may diminish the ability to metabolize serotonin.2
Potentially dangerous combinations
MAOIs. Serotonin syndrome has been reported as a result of interactions between MAOIs—including selegiline and reversible MAO-A inhibitors (RIMAs)—and various serotonergic compounds. These reports have included fatalities,4 some of which were preceded by severe hyperthermia with complications such as disseminated intravascular coagulation, rhabdomyolysis, and renal failure. Some cases resulted from overdoses, but others did not.
Most disturbingly, some cases occurred after patients had undergone the traditional 2-week washout from the MAOI and then took a serotonergic agent.5-7 In one instance,8 a patient who had discontinued fluoxetine for 6 weeks developed serotonin syndrome after starting tranylcypromine. These cases remind us to be vigilant when switching patients from irreversible MAOIs to serotonergic antidepressants or vice versa—even when recommended wash-out times are observed—and not to combine these agents acutely.
Selegiline is a relatively selective MAO-B inhibitor when used at 5 to 10 mg/d to treat Parkinson’s disease, though it loses MAO-B selectivity when used at higher dosages to treat depression. In a study9 of 4,568 patients with Parkinson’s disease who received selegiline (in dosages selective for MAO-B) plus an antidepressant:
11 (0.24%) experienced symptoms “possibly” consistent with serotonin syndrome
2 others (0.04%) experienced serious serotonin syndrome symptoms.9
Serotonin syndrome has been reported when MAO-B-selective doses of selegiline were combined with meperidine10 and nortriptyline.11 This underscores the need for caution when combining these agents, especially if transdermal selegiline—which would not be MAO-B-selective—becomes available for treating depression.
Moclobemide is a RIMA used in treating depression and anxiety, with a purported reduced risk of drug and food interactions compared with other MAOIs. Moclobemide is not approved in the United States, but some patients obtain it elsewhere.
Joffe and Bakish reported on safely combining moclobemide with SSRIs,12 and a review of MAOIs—including RIMAs—indicated that moclobemide was involved in only 9 of 226 cases of adverse effects and 3 of 105 cases of defined serotonin syndrome.13 Most moclobemide-SSRI interactions—including fatalities—involved overdoses in suicide attempts, although toxic symptoms have been reported with clomipramine or meperidine taken at normal dosages.14,15
In one study,16 18 healthy controls received fluoxetine, 20 to 40 mg/d, for 23 days, then were given moclobemide, up to 600 mg/d, or placebo and observed for adverse effects. No indication of serotonin syndrome was observed.
Linezolid is an oxazolidinone antibiotic with relatively weak, nonspecific, but reversible MAO inhibition. Cases of potential serotonin syndrome have been reported with linezolid plus paroxetine17 or sertraline.18 Patients in each case were medically ill and taking several other medications, which complicates interpretation of these reports. Nonetheless, physicians should be aware of the potential risk of serotonin syndrome if this antibiotic is combined with serotonergic agents.
Atypical antipsychotics. Original diagnostic criteria for serotonin syndrome excluded the addition of, or increase in, an antipsychotic prior to the syndrome’s onset.1 However, serotonin syndrome has been reported with combinations of risperidone with paroxetine,19 olanzapine with mirtazapine and tramadol,20 and olanzapine with lithium and citalopram.21 The 5HT2 antagonist effect of these atypical antipsychotics may have led indirectly to overactivation of 5HT1a receptors and serotonin syndrome. In each case, neuroleptic malignant syndrome was ruled out.
Tramadol is an analgesic with opioid and serotonin-reuptake inhibiting properties that is metabolized by the cytochrome P (CYP)-450 isoenzyme 2D6. Serotonin syndrome has been reported from interactions between tramadol and sertraline22 and fluoxetine.23 Possible causes include SSRI inhibition of CYP 2D6 metabolism of tramadol, tramadol abuse,23 and multiple co-administered medications.22
Sumatriptan is one of the selective 5HT1D agonists used in treating migraine. Gardner and Lynd24 concluded that most patients tolerate sumatriptan with SSRIs or lithium. They felt they could not ensure the safety of sumatriptan with MAOIs, however, because sumatriptan elimination depends on hepatic MAO activity.
Among the 5HT1D agonists, using sumatriptan, zolmitriptan, rizatriptan, or almotriptan with an MAOI or within 2 weeks of discontinuing an MAOI is contraindicated. Naratriptan and frovatriptan appear less likely to interact with MAOIs, based on FDA-approved labeling.
MDMA. 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “Ecstasy”) is widely used as a recreational drug, especially at crowded dances (“raves”) and with other drugs.25 This illicit amphetamine derivative stimulates the release of serotonin and inhibits its reuptake.
Kaskey reported the rapid onset of serotonin syndrome when a patient taking lithium and phenelzine ingested MDMA.26 Signs and symptoms of serotonin syndrome also may develop when MDMA is used alone, facilitated by the high ambient temperatures on crowded dance floors and the dancers’ relative dehydration.
Fatalities have been blamed on complications including disseminated intravascular coagulation, rhabdomyolysis, and acute hepatic, renal, or cardiac failure.25 Cases are difficult to interpret because of uncertainty about whether the victim ingested MDMA or another agent or combination.
St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) contains numerous constituents, including hypericin and hyperforin, which have been found to inhibit the synaptic uptake of monoamines, including serotonin.27 Which constituents are responsible for its clinical effect is unclear. Adverse effects from monotherapy include GI symptoms, confusion, dry mouth, dizziness, headache, fatigue, allergic skin reactions, photosensitivity, and urinary frequency.27
Several cases of purported serotonin syndrome have been associated with St. John’s wort alone28 or in combination with SSRIs, nefazodone, or fenfluramine.29,30 GI symptoms and anxiety were the primary complaints and resolved without complications (adjunctive cyproheptadine was prescribed in two cases, though it is not clear that this agent contributed to resolution).
Miscellaneous combinations
Antiretroviral therapy. Five cases of serotonin syndrome were reported in HIV-infected patients taking fluoxetine with antiretroviral therapy.31 In particular, the use or addition of ritonavir—a potent CYP 2D6 inhibitor—was implicated, though saquinavir, efavirenz, or grapefruit juice (all primarily CYP 3A4 inhibitors) were also used, suggesting that pharmacokinetic interactions increased serotonergic stimulation. All five patients were taking multiple additional medications and had complex medical and/or psychiatric histories. Reducing SSRI dosages by one-half when used with ritonavir has been recommended to minimize adverse effects from a pharmacokinetic interaction.
Erythromycin was reported to induce serotonin syndrome in a 12-year-old boy when added to ongoing treatment with sertraline, an effect believed to be secondary to CYP 3A4 inhibition of sertraline metabolism.32
Mirtazapine was reported to induce serotonin syndrome in an elderly man 8 days after it was added to a regimen he had been taking for several years to treat chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.33 Serotonin syndrome also developed in a 12-year-old boy with Ewing’s sarcoma when the 5HT3 antagonist ondansetron was added to mirtazapine and morphine34 and in an 11-year-old girl with acute lymphoblastic leukemia when ondansetron was added to fentanyl. Interestingly, another report35 suggested using mirtazapine to treat serotonin syndrome caused by serotonergic antagonist effects.
Reports have associated the following combinations with serotonin syndrome, perhaps as the result of pharmacodynamic and/or pharmacokinetic interactions:
paroxetine plus dextromethorphan and pseudoephedrine
paroxetine plus nefazodone
fluoxetine plus clomipramine and buspirone
fluvoxamine plus buspirone
fluoxetine plus buspirone
amitriptyline plus meperidine and venlafaxine
venlafaxine and dextroamphetamine
fluoxetine plus clomipramine.
How to recognize serotonin syndrome
Signs and symptoms of serotonin syndrome can overlap with those seen in neuroleptic malignant syndrome, lethal catatonia, malignant hyperthermia, and anticholinergic toxicity (Table 3),1,36,37 particularly with fever or hyperthermia (>40.5 °C, 105 °F). Fink37 has opined that acute neurotoxic syndromes such as serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome also meet criteria for catatonia and are therefore subtypes of catatonia. The types of drugs involved and clinical findings can help distinguish the various hyperthermic states (Table 4).
As mentioned above, original diagnostic criteria for serotonin syndrome excluded the addition of, or increase in, an antipsychotic agent. This exclusion was intended to avoid confusion between serotonin syndrome and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Co-administering antipsychotic and serotonergic agents requires heightened awareness for both neurotoxic syndromes.
Treating mild to severe cases
If a patient develops serotonin syndrome, immediately discontinue the suspected agent(s) and observe carefully. In most cases, serotonin
syndrome will resolve within 24 hours.
In mild cases, lorazepam, 1 to 2 mg slow IV push every 30 minutes until excessive sedation develops, may help. In moderate to severe cases, agents that block serotonin’s action are recommended,2 including:
cyproheptadine (4 mg po every 4 hours as needed, up to 20 mg in 24 hours)
propranolol (1 to 3 mg IV every 5 minutes, up to 0.1 mg/kg).
Case reports attest to these agents’ potential benefit. Other clinicians have reported using mirtazapine,35 nitroglycerin,38 and chlorpromazine.1
Serotonin syndrome symptoms resolved within minutes when IV nitroglycerin was used in a patient with serotonin syndrome and cardiac ischemia. The authors hypothesized that nitroglycerin, via nitric acid, provided an “off” signal for serotonin, though they did not advocate this as a routine treatment.38
The rationale for using chlorpromazine is its potential to block serotonin receptors. I would avoid the routine use of any antipsychotic agent in this setting, however, to minimize the risk of neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
Severe cases. Intensive care observation and treatment is required for patients with severe serotonin syndrome, including evidence of hyperthermia, DIC, rhabdomyolysis, renal failure, or aspiration. In cases of hyperthermia, supportive measures and standard treatments include muscle relaxants, cooling, and endotracheal intubation.
Severe complications are most likely with interactions between MAOIs and serotonergic agents, especially in overdose. Therefore, using such combinations requires close observation.
References
Sternbach H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:705-13.
Brown TM, Skop BP, Mareth TR. Pathophysiology and management of the serotonin syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1996;30:527-33.
Hegerl U, Bottlender R, Gallinat J, et al. The serotonin syndrome scale: first results on validity. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998;248:96-103.
Beasley CM Jr., Masica DN, Heiligenstein JH, et al. Possible monoamine-oxidase inhibitor-serotonin uptake inhibitor interaction: fluoxetine clinical data and pre-clinical findings. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993;13:312-20.
Ruiz F. Fluoxetine and the serotonin syndrome. Ann Emerg Med 1994;34:983-5.
Gitlin MJ. Venlafaxine, monoamine oxidase inhibitors and the serotonin syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997;17:66-7.
Kolecki P. Venlafaxine induced serotonin syndrome occurring after abstinence from phenelzine for more than two weeks. Clin Toxicol 1997;35:211-12.
Coplan JD, Gorman JM. Detectable levels of fluoxetine metabolites after discontinuation: an unexpected serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1993;15:837.
Richard IH, Kurlan R, Tanner C, et al. Serotonin syndrome and the combined use of deprenyl and an antidepressant in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1997;48:1070-7.
Zornberg GL, Bodkin JA, Cohen BM. Severe adverse interaction between pethidine and selegiline. Lancet 1991;337:246.
Hinds NP, Hillier CE, Wiles CM. Possible serotonin syndrome arising from an interaction between nortriptyline and selegiline in a lady with parkinsonism. J Neurol 2000;247:811.
Joffe RT, Bakish D. Combined SSRI-moclobemide treatment of psychiatric illness. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:24-5.
Hilton SE, Maradit H, Moller HJ. Serotonin syndrome and drug combinations: focus on MAOI and RIMA. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997;247:113-19.
Dardennes RM, Even C, Ballon N, et al. Serotonin syndrome caused by a clomipramine-moclobemide interaction. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59:382-3.
Gillman PK. Possible serotonin syndrome with moclobemide and pethidine. Med J Aust 1995;162:554.
Dingemanse J, Wallnofer A, Gieschke R, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interaction between fluoxetine and moclobemide in the investigation of development of the “serotonin syndrome.” Clin Pharmacol Ther 1998;63:403-13.
Wigen CL, Goetz MB. Serotonin syndrome and linezolid. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:1651-2.
Lavery S, Ravi H, McDaniel WW, et al. Linezolid and serotonin syndrome. Psychosomatics 2001;42:432-4.
Hamilton S, Malone K. Serotonin syndrome during treatment with paroxetine and risperidone. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000;20:103-5.
Duggal HS, Fetchko J. Serotonin syndrome and atypical antipsychotics. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:672-3.
Haslett CD, Kumar S. Can olanzapine be implicated in causing serotonin syndrome? Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002;56:533-6.
Mason BJ, Blackburn KH. Possible serotonin syndrome associated with tramadol and sertraline coadministration. Ann Pharmacother 1997;31:175-7.
Lange-Asschenfeldt C, Weigmann H, Hiemke C, et al. Serotonin syndrome as a result of fluoxetine in a patient with tramadol abuse: plasma level-correlated symptomatology. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;22:440-1.
Gardner DM, Lynd LD. Sumatriptan contraindications and the serotonin syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:33-8.
Parrott AC. Recreational Ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002; 71:837-44.
Kaskey GB. Possible interaction between an MAOI and “Ecstasy.” Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:411-12.
De Smet PA. Herbal remedies. N Engl J Med 2002;347:2046-56.
Parker V, Wong AH, Boon HS, et al. Adverse reactions to St. John’s wort. Can J Psychiatry 2001;46:77-9.
Lantz MS, Buchalter E, Giambanco V. St. John’s wort and antidepressant drug interactions in the elderly. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1999;12:7-10.
Beckman SE, Sommi RW, Switzer J. Consumer use of St. John’s wort: a survey of effectiveness, safety, and tolerability. Pharmacotherapy 2000;20:568-74.
De Silva KE, Le Flore DB, Marston BJ et al. Serotonin syndrome in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy and fluoxetine. AIDS 2001;15:1281-5.
Lee DO, Lee CD. Serotonin syndrome in a child associated with erythromycin and sertraline. Pharmacotherapy 1999;19:894-6.
Hernandez JL, Ramos FJ, Infante J, et al. Severe serotonin syndrome induced by mirtazapine monotherapy. Ann Pharmacother 2002;36:641-3.
Turkel SB, Nadala JGB, Wincor MZ. Possible serotonin syndrome in association with 5HT3 antagonist agents. Psychosomatics 2001; 42:258-60.
Hoes MJ, Zeijpveld JH. Mirtazapine as treatment for serotonin syndrome. Pharmacopsychiatry 1996;29:81.
Theoharides TC, Harris RS, Weckstein D. Neuroleptic malignant-like syndrome due to cyclobenzaprine? J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995;15:79-81.
Fink M. Toxic serotonin syndrome or neuroleptic malignant syndrome? Pharmacopsychiatry 1996;29:159-61.
Brown TM, Skop BP. Nitroglycerin in the treatment of the serotonin syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1996;30:191-2.
Related resources
Di Rosa AE, Morgante L, Spina E et al. Epidemiology and
pathoetiology of neurological syndromes with hyperthermia.
Funct Neurol 1995;10:111-19.
Radomski, JW, Dursun SM, Reveley MA, et al. An exploratory approach to the serotonin syndrome: an update of clinical phenomenology and revised diagnostic criteria. Med Hypothesis 2000;55: 218-24.
Lane R, Baldwin D. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-induced serotonin syndrome: review. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997;17:208-21.
DRUG BRAND NAMES
Almotriptan • Axert
Amitriptyline • Elavil
Buspirone • Buspar
Chlorpromazine • Thorazine
Citalopram • Celexa
Clomipramine • Anafranil
Cyproheptadine • Periactin
Dextroamphetamine • Dexedrine
Dextromethorphan • Delsym
Efavirenz • Sustiva
Escitalopram • Lexapro
Fenfluramine • Pondimin
Fentanyl • Sublimaze
Fluoxetine • Prozac
Fluvoxamine • Luvox
Frovatriptan • Frova
Isocarboxazid • Marplan
Linezolid • Zyvox
Meperidine • Demerol
Mirtazapine • Remeron
Moclobemide • Aurorix
Nortriptyline • Pamelor
Naratriptan, • Amerge
Nefazodone • Serzone
Olanzapine • Zyprexa
Ondansetron • Zofran
Paroxetine • Paxil
Phenelzine • Nardil
Propranolol • Inderal
Risperidone • Risperdal
Ritonavir • Norvir
Rizatriptan • Maxalt
Saquinavir • Invirase
Selegiline • Eldepryl
Sertraline • Zoloft
Sumatriptan • Imitrex
Tramadol • Ultram
Tranylcypromine • Parnate
Trazodone • Desyrel
Venlafaxine • Effexor
Zolmitriptan • Zomig
DISCLOSURE
Dr. Sternbach receives research grants from Otsuka America Pharmaceuticals and Eli Lilly and Co. and owns stock in Merck & Co., Pfizer Inc., and Johnson & Johnson.
The Serotonin Syndrome, the Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS), and Catatonia appear to share many clinical similarities, namely: cognitive, behavioral, neuromuscular, and autonomic nervous system dysfunction, with variable hyperthermia. The pathogenesis of the Serotonin Syndrome is reported to be due to serotonin hyperactivity at the 5-HT1A receptor (Sternbach H, AM J Psychiatry 1991; 148: 705-713). One proposed model of catatonia and NMS incorporates this 5-HT1A receptor hyperactivity. (Carroll BT, CNS Spectrums 2000, in press).
Conclusions: Based on the commonality of the proposed 5-HT1A hyperactivity in the pathogenesis of the three disorders, the serotonin syndrome, NMS, and catatonia may be considered as allied conditions. Further research into the role of the serotonin system in these disorders is necessary.
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There is a large degree of diagnostic overlap between the serotonin syndrome, neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS), and catatonia. The Universal Field Hypothesis states that both catatonia and NMS result from variable combinations of the following: 1)GABA hypoactivity at the GABAa receptor, 2) dopamine hypoactivity at the D2 receptor, 3) serotonin hyperactivity at the 5-HT1A receptor and hypoactivity at the 5-HT2A receptor, and 4) glutamate hypoactivity at the NMDA receptor.1
The literature on NMS strongly suggests that the potency of D2 antagonism is related to the antipsychotics' likelihood of causing this condition. The serotonin syndrome (SS), NMS, and catatonia share many clinical similarities (i.e., cognitive, behavioral, neuromuscular, and autonomic nervous system dysfunction with variable hyperthermia). However, SS results from treatment with serotonergic agents, while NMS results from dopamine-blocking agents. The pathogenesis of SS is reported to be due to serotonin hyperactivity at the 5-HT1A receptor. If the serotonin syndrome is caused by increased activity at the 5-HT1A serotonin receptor, then the overlap of symptoms may be due to this 5-HT1A hyperactivity. Novel antipsychotics share 5-HT1A hyperactivity, while D2 blockade is low.
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Conclusion:
If novel antipsychotics induce NMS, perhaps it is not through blockade of the D2 receptor, but rather through serotonergic mechanisms. Thus, by increasing the activity at 5-HT1A, novel agents may induce an "NMS-like syndrome."
This hypothesized 5-HT1A pathway holds certain implications, namely:
1) D2 (dopamine) antagonism may not be primarily involved in these cases.
2) Reduction of serotonin activity could reduce or alleviate these cases of "serotonin-pathway NMS," possibly by:
a) Reducing lithium
b) Reducing concomitant SSRIs
c) Adding a cyproheptadine at the first signs of the syndrome
d) Favoring monotherapy administration of the novel antipsychotics
3) There may be a second pathway of induction for NMS.
4) Ziprazidone would exhibit a pharmacologic risk factor greater than other novel antipsychotics.
If NMS is caused by a variety of risk factors, perhaps this model form NMS may lead to testable hypotheses, greater understanding and perhaps prevention of NMS.
* References available by request
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STRENGTH CONSISTENCY TEMPORALITY PLAUSABILTY
RISK FACTOR
Leathal Catatonia 0.50% 4 Studies show strong LC progresses to NMS LC is a Pre-NMS State
(including EPS) associations
UFH RP 0.25% The Universal Field the N of NMS D2>NMDA
Pharmacologic Hypotheses of Catatonia
and NMS identifies Risk GABAa>5-HT1a
Ambient Heat 0.10% 3 studies identify that if present Ambient Heat increased heat generation
patients on neuroleptics increases Temperature
show higher temperatures
(Hermesh et al)
Dehydration/ 0.10% Dehyration and Agitation Retrospective Review Impaired cooling from
Agitation have been risks for NMS dehydration
in several studies increased heat from
motoric agitation
Laboratory Risk 0.05% At baseline The A to Fe increased D2 sensitivity
Factor (Low Fe & low serum Iron is a risk. Hypothesis Predicts that from low serum Iron,
High CPK) (Lee JW) those with either low Iron increased muscle
high CPK is a risk for or high CPK are at greater sensitivity from high CPK
NMS (Hemesh et al) risk for NMS
MDMA (Ecstasy) elicits the acute release of
5-HT, thus resulting in the serotonin syndrome. Behavioral studies across a number of animal species suggest that many features of the serotonin syndrome appear related to overstimulation of postsynaptic 5-HT1A receptors.
Total 1.00% There are multiple studies What preceeds NMS? Dopaminergic
pointing to risk factors, before the neuroleptic is Gabaergic
however, there is no single given? Serotonergic and
summary of these risk Gluatiminergic other
factors mechanisms
MDMA (Ecstasy) elicits the acute release of
5-HT, thus resulting in the serotonin syndrome. Behavioral studies across a number of animal species suggest that many features of the serotonin syndrome appear related to overstimulation of postsynaptic 5-HT1A receptors.
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